How chemistry can yield life is one of the most intriguing questions in contemporary science. We have explored experimentally how the key properties of life can emerge from complex molecular networks of fully synthetic molecules. The interplay between bond formation, bond breakage and assembly and disassembly processes gave rise to all of the key features of life: self-replication, metabolism, compartmentalization and even evolution.

Specifically, self-replicators have been developed¹ that, in addition to their own formation, are able to catalyse reactions. These reactions can yield products that are utilized by the system, representing a minimal metabolism.^2,3 Replicators can produce molecules that assemble into compartments (coacervate droplets), into which the replicator partitions spontaneously. Rudimentary Darwinian evolution has also been achieved, showing survival of the fittest, coexistence through niche partitioning, minimal eco-evolutionary dynamics, and selection for photocatalytic activitiy.^4-6 With the integration of all of these characteristics, the prospect of synthesizing life de novo is becoming increasingly realistic.^7,8

1. Carnall, J. M. A.; Waudby, C. A.; Belenguer, A. M.; Stuart, M. C. A.; Peyralans, J. J.-P.; Otto, S. Science 2010, 327, 1502-1506.

2. Monreal Santiago, G.; Liu, K.; Browne, W. R.; Otto, S. Nat. Chem. 2020, 12, 603-607.

3. Ottelé, J.; Hussain, A. S.; Mayer, C.; Otto, S. Nat. Catal. 2020, 3, 547-553.

4. K. Liu, A. Blokhuis, C. van Ewijk, A. Kiani, J. Wu, .W.H. Roos, S. Otto Nat. Chem. 2024, 16, 79–88.

5. Eleveld, M.; Geiger, Y.; Wu, J.;Kiani, A.; Schaeffer, G.; Otto, S. Nat. Chem. 2025, 17, 132-140.

6. Liu, K.; Markovitch, O.; van Ewijk, C.; Knelissen, Y. K.; Kiani, A.; Eleveld, M.; Roos, W. H.; Otto, S. Nat. Catal. 2025, 8, 1000–1009.

7. Adamski, P.; Eleveld, M.; Sood, A,; Kun, A.; Szilágyi, A.; Czárán, T.; Szathmáry, E.; Otto, S. Nat. Rev. Chem. 2020, 4, 386–403.

8. Otto, S. Acc. Chem. Res. 2022, 55, 145-155.